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INTERNATIONAL AMATEUR RADIO UNION
RESOLUTIONS AND POLICIES OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE COUNCIL AND TERMS OF REFERENCE OF ADMINISTRATIVE COUNCIL APPOINTEES AND IARU REPRESENTATIVES TO ITU MEETINGS
International Secretariat P. O. Box 310905 Newington, CT USA 06131-0905
August 2005
REFERENCE NUMBERS, SUBJECTS AND STATUS OF RESOLUTIONS
83‑1 Monitoring System (Action completed) 83-2 American Radio Relay League (Action completed) 83-3 World Plenary Meeting (Action completed)
84‑1 10 MHz Band (Superseded) 84-2 Monitoring System (Action completed) 84-3 Constitution and Bylaws (Action completed) 84-4 World Plenary Meeting (Action completed) 84-5 World Radio Amateurs Day (Superseded) 84-6 Participation in International Telecommunications Conferences (Action completed)
85‑1 28 MHz Beacons (Superseded) 85-2 Contacts with the ITU regarding IARU Monitoring System matters (Superseded) 85-3 Monitoring System (Superseded) 85-4 Participation in International Telecommunications Conferences (Superseded) 85-5 Membership in Regional Organizations (Action completed) 85-6 Specialized Amateur Radio Organizations (Continuing) 85-7 Packet Radio (Superseded) 85-8 IARU Representation by a Member‑Society (Continuing) 85-9 QSL Bureau (Continuing)
86‑1 28 MHz Beacons (Continuing – Revised 1990) 86-2 Packet Radio (Superseded) 86-3 IARU Representation by a Member‑Society (Continuing – Revised 1989) 86-4 Electromagnetic Compatibility (Continuing)
87‑1 Possible Future WARC (Superseded) 87-2 Relaying Messages by Amateur Stations (Continuing – Revised 1989)
88‑1 Monitoring System (Continuing) 88-2 10 MHz Band (Continuing – Revised 1990 and 1999) 88-3 Funding of IARU Activities (Superseded) 88-4 Packet Radio (Suppressed – Overtaken by events) 88-5 Call Signs (Suppressed)
89‑1 1992 WARC (Action completed) 89-2 Common Frequency Allocations at VHF/UHF/SHF (Continuing) 89-3 Amateur Satellite Usage (Continuing) 89-4 IARU Satellite Activity Coordinator (Action completed)
90‑1 1992 WARC (Action completed) 90-2 Development of Amateur Radio (Continuing – Revised 1992)
91‑1 Improper Use of the Amateur Bands (Superseded) 91-2 Guidelines for “Digimode” (Continuing – Revised 1995) 91-3 Sharing of Certain IARU Expenses by the Regional Organizations (Continuing)
92‑1 Effects of non‑ionizing emissions (Continuing)
93-1 International Coordinators and Other Appointees (Continuing – Revised 2001) 93-2 Commonly Accepted Amateur License (Continuing) 93-3 Effective Representation of Radio Amateurs (Continuing) 93-4 “Type Approval” of Radio Equipment (Continuing) 93-5 Regular Inspection of Amateur Stations (Continuing) 93-6 IARU Response to ITU Restructuring (Superseded) 93-7 Implementation of IARU Strategic Plan (Superseded)
94-1 IARU policy on the report of the ITU Voluntary Group of Experts (Action completed) 94-2 Formation of IARU policy relative to Morse code regulations (Suppressed – made obsolete by WRC-95) 94-3 World Amateur Radio Day Continuing (Revised 1997 and 2001)
95-1 Role of the IARU regional organizations in the promotion and defense of the Amateur and Amateur-Satellite Services (Continuing – Revised 2001) 95-2 Roaming license qualifications (Suppressed – made obsolete by WRC-95)
97-1 Developments in amateur digital communication (Continuing) 97-2 Review of the structure of the IARU (Action completed)
98-1 Tampere Convention on the Provision of Telecommunication Resources for Disaster Relief and Mitigation (Suppressed) 98-2 Beacons (Continuing)
99-1 Amateur service and amateur-satellite service operator qualifications (Action completed) 99-2 Growth in wireless communications (Rescinded) 99-3 An intellectual property rights policy for Amateur Radio (Continuing) 99-4 Terms of reference for the IARU Monitoring System (Continuing)
01-1 Morse code (Continuing – Revised 2003)
02-1 Potential interference from power line communications (Continuing) 02-2 Theme for World Amateur Radio Day 2003 (Action completed)
03-1 Implementation of revised Article 25 of the international Radio Regulations (Continuing)
04-1 Potential interference to radio services from BPL systems (Continuing)
IARU Policies Adopted by the Administrative Council Policy # 1 Submission of Resolutions to Regional Conferences (1988, Revised 1993) Policy # 2 Responsibility for Representation at ITU Meetings (1993, Revised 2000) Policy # 3 Response of the IARU to the Evolution of the ITU (1995) Policy # 4 Administrative Council voting procedures by electronic mail (2001) Policy # 5 Guidelines for the election of IARU President and Vice President (2001, Revised 2003)
Terms of Reference of Administrative Council Appointees IARU Monitoring System International Coordinator (1985, Amended 2001) IARU Beacon Project International Coordinator (1990, Amended 1996/2001) IARU Satellite Adviser (1995, Amended 2001) IARU EMC Adviser (1995, Amended 2001) IARU International Coordinator for Emergency Communications (2003, Amended 2004)
INDEX
Administrative Matters
Administrative Council Voting Procedures by Electronic Mail..…….Policy #4 Effective Representation of Radio Amateurs............................................... 93-3 Funding ...................................................................................................... 91‑3 International Coordinators and Other Appointees ...................................... 93-1 QSL Bureaus .................................................…........................................... 85‑9 Representation by a Member‑Society .........…....…........................... 85‑8, 86‑3 Submission of Resolutions at Regional Conferences...........................Policy # 1
ITU‑related Matters
Implementation of Revised Article 25 of the International Radio Regulations……………………………………..………… 03-1 Monitoring System ..........................................................................….88-1, 99-4 Responsibilities for Representation at ITU meetings.............… Policy #2 and #3 Role of Regional Organizations in Amateur Radio Promotion and Defense.95-1
Operational Matters
Amateur Satellite ......................................................................................... 89‑3 Beacons……………………………………………………………..86-1, 98-2 “DIGIMODE”.........................................................................................….. 91-2 Relaying Messages....................................................................................... 87‑2 VHF/UHF/SHF ........................................................................................... 89‑2 10 MHz Band .............................................................................................. 88‑2
Other Matters
Commonly Accepted Amateur License ..................................................... 93-2 Development of Amateur Radio......................... ....................................... 90‑2 Developments In Amateur Digital Communication ................................. 97-1 Electromagnetic Compatibility .................................................................. 86‑4 Intellectual Rights Policy for Amateur Radio ………………………….. 99-3 Interference from power line communications (BPL).…………… 02-1, 04-1 Morse code …………………………………………………………….. 01-1 Possible Effects of Non‑Ionizing Emissions ............................................. 92‑1 Regular Inspection of Amateur Stations .................................................... 93-5 Specialized Amateur Radio Organizations................................................. 85‑6 "Type Approval" of Radio Equipment ...................................................... 93-4 World Amateur Radio Day ........................................................................ 94-3
RESOLUTION 85‑6
concerning recognition of activities of specialized amateur radio organizations
The IARU Administrative Council, Auckland, November 1985,
recognizing that meritorious accomplishments often result from the initiative and efforts of individual amateurs and groups, related to specific activities or developments in the field of radio communication techniques or applications,
recognizing that it is in the interest of the Amateur Service worldwide that such endeavors be shared and developed with radio amateurs worldwide, and
recognizing further, that the work of such individual amateurs and groups may in some cases be enhanced through the facilities of the IARU organization, it is
resolved, that individual amateurs and groups are hereby invited to share information on their initiatives with the IARU for possible coordination for the benefit of the whole radio amateur community.
RESOLUTION 85-8
concerning guarantee of the exclusive right of a member‑society to represent the IARU in its country or territory
resolved, by the IARU Administrative Council, Auckland, November 1985, that no member‑society nor regional organization, nor the Administrative Council, shall recognize any amateur radio society in another country or territory which is represented by an IARU member‑society; and
further resolved, that no member‑society nor regional organization, nor the Administrative Council, shall have any communication with such society which in any way detracts from or interferes with, the sole and exclusive right of an IARU member‑society to represent the IARU in its country or territory. Should any doubt arise as to such communication, the wishes of the IARU member‑society in the country or territory concerned shall prevail.
RESOLUTION 85-9
concerning QSL bureaus
The IARU Administrative Council, Auckland, November 1985,
recognizing that the exchanging of QSL cards is a "final courtesy" in an Amateur Radio communication,
recognizing that the cost of exchanging cards between individual amateur stations is prohibitive in most cases, unless an efficient international bureau system in operation,
recognizing that an amateur who sends a card via the bureau usually has no way of knowing whether the amateur to whom it is addressed is a member of his national IARU society, and
recognizing that most IARU member‑societies operate incoming bureau systems that are available to members and non‑members alike, but that some are unable, for good and sufficient reason, to provide service to non‑members even it the expenses of doing so are fully reimbursed,
resolves that member‑societies are strongly encouraged, whenever possible to provide incoming QSL bureaus service to non‑members within their operating territory, if such non‑members agree to pay the full cost of this service, and
further resolves that member‑societies shall not forward QSL Cards to bureaus operated by non‑members of IARU, if there is an IARU member‑society in the country concerned that forwards cards to non‑members who agree to pay the full cost of this service.
RESOLUTION 86-1 (Revised 1990)
concerning 28‑MHz beacons
The IARU Administrative Council, Buenos Aires, October 1986,
recognizing the popularity of the IARU Beacon Project on 28 MHz, as well as the time and energy that has been dedicated to the endeavor,
recognizing that it is desirable to improve, enhance and technically update the 28 MHz beacon system, especially in view of the success of the 14.1 MHz program sponsored by the Northern California DX Foundation,
recognizing that the IARU band plans of frequency allocated to the Amateur Service should exemplify the most efficient use of the frequency spectrum,
resolves that the 28 MHz beacon system be revised according to the following guidelines:
1. The segment 28.190 to 28.200 MHz will be assigned as time sharing frequencies for the IARU Beacon Project, effective immediately.
2. A worldwide network similar to the 14.1 MHz program of the NCDXF will operate on 28.200 MHz.
3. Regional networks, each encompassing approximately a continent, should be established on integral kilohertz between 28.190 and 28.199 MHz.
4. IARU member‑societies are encouraged to sponsor the operation of beacons in this network.
5. Existing beacons operated by an IARU society will have preference in this new scheme.
6. The IARU Beacon Project Coordinator will submit to the International Secretariat the technical parameters for the beacons as well as the specifications for the regional networks, information that will be sent to all member‑societies. He will be responsible for frequency management, for time allocations and will strive for global coverage.
7. The Administrative Council will insure that this new scheme of 28 MHz beacons as well as any other beacon systems in other bands will be adequately publicized and that the data collected from the operation of the beacons will be distributed regularly to all member‑societies.
8. The segment 28.200‑28.225 MHz will be reserved for use by continuous‑duty beacons, to be approved by the IARU Beacon Project Coordinator on a case‑by‑case basis after a satisfactory showing of special need.
9. Beacons operating outside of the new system for time sharing of frequencies 28.190‑28.200 MHz and continuous‑duty beacons at 28.200‑28.225 MHz will cease to be protected from interference by IARU band plans on 1 January 1993.
RESOLUTION 86-3 (Revised 1989)
concerning guarantee of the exclusive right of a member‑society to represent the IARU to its government
Resolved by the IARU Administrative Council, Buenos Aires, October 1986,
That no Member‑Society, Regional Organization, or the Administrative Council shall communicate with any government department (including the Telecommunications Administration) of a country or territory represented by an IARU Member‑Society if this interferes with the exclusive right of that Society to represent amateur radio in that country or territory.
Should there be any doubt about such a communication the opinion of the Member‑Society involved shall be respected ‑‑ unless the Administrative Council believes that the Society is acting contrary to the interests of amateur radio of the IARU or no longer represents the interests of radio amateurs in its country or territory.
RESOLUTION 86‑4
concerning electromagnetic compatibility
Whereas 1) radio amateurs in many countries are experiencing serious problems arising from the RF susceptibility of non‑radio electronic products,
2) the manufacturers of such products are reluctant to reduce the RF susceptibility of these products, and
3) without appropriate regulations, radio amateurs will be held responsible for the malfunction of these products, and (as has occurred in Canada) be subject to harassment, lawsuit and indictment before the law,
The IARU Administrative Council, Buenos Aires, 1986,
Resolves that IARU member‑societies be urged to press their communications authorities to assume responsibility for non‑radio electronic products, require manufacturers to build RF susceptibility safeguards into their products, and make regulations that will require manufacturers to repair, without charge, any of their products that malfunction in an RF field.
RESOLUTION 87-2 (Revised 1989)
concerning the relaying of messages by amateur stations
The IARU Administrative Council, Noordwijkerhout, April 1987,
recognizing the problems caused by the handling by amateur stations of communications having inappropriate content, particularly with regard to business and commercial matters,
recognizing the impact on the crowded spectrum from unattended store‑and‑forward ("mailbox") stations, and
further recognizing that the problems of controlling the content of amateur radiocommunication is made more difficult by the availability of such stations.
resolves that the Administrative Council affirms the action taken at its Buenos Aires meeting, in urging member‑societies to emphasize to their members the importance of adhering to the spirit and intentions of the ITU Radio Regulations, and of handling only that traffic which does conform; and
further resolves that member‑societies are hereby urged to acquaint their members as the undesirable aspects of the uncontrolled proliferation of unattended store‑and‑forward ("mailbox") stations.
RESOLUTION 88-1
concerning the IARU Monitoring System
The IARU Administrative Council, Seoul, October 1988
recognizing the importance and value to Amateur Radio of the work performed by the IARU Monitoring System,
considering the global organization that has been effectively created under the leadership of the IARUMS International Coordinator,
recognizing the technical capabilities of the IARUMS, and
noting the contributions of the IARUMS Regional Coordinators,
resolves to continue its efforts to seek recognition of the IARUMS by international telecommunications organizations so as to better ensure that the work of the IARUMS can be as effective as possible in protecting the frequency allocations to the Amateur and Amateur‑Satellite Services.
RESOLUTION 88-2 (Revised 1990 and 1999)
The IARU Administrative Council, Seoul, October 1988,
recognizing that the allocation to the Amateur Service of 10.1‑10.15 MHz is unique, in that it is the only high‑frequency allocation to our service that is on a secondary basis,
noting that the band is narrow, and in many parts of the world is occupied by stations of the Fixed Service, which have priority, and
further noting that harmful interference to stations in the Fixed Service by stations in the Amateur Service could result in the imposition of additional restrictions on amateur operation, and even in loss of the band,
resolves 1. that member‑societies should seek to have their administrations relocate fixed stations outside the 10.1‑10.15 MHz band, on a national basis;
2. that amateurs using the band shall limit themselves to narrow‑band, non‑voice emissions except as necessary for temporary emergency and disaster relief communications;
3. that contest activity shall be prohibited in the band; and
4. that member‑societies shall avoid creating incentives, such as special awards, for operating in the 10 MHz band that could result in interference to stations operating in the Fixed Service.
RESOLUTION 89-2
concerning common frequency allocations at VHF/UHF/SHF
The IARU Administrative Council, Orlando, September 1989,
recognizing the international nature of amateur operations at VHF/UHF/SHF, especially for long distance modes such as moonbounce, meteor scatter, etc.,
resolves that member‑societies work to maintain common frequency allocations at these frequencies, to enable international working and to facilitate band planning.
RESOLUTION 89‑3
concerning amateur satellite usage
The IARU Administrative Council, Orlando, September 1989,
recognizing the important contributions made by amateur radio societies in the following areas:
* demonstration to the professional community that radio amateurs contribute to the development of state‑of‑the‑art technology and techniques,
* provisions of new and challenging operational opportunities and training ground for radio amateurs to acquire new skills,
* providing opportunities for training in an exciting technological field by direct participation, in schools, universities and professional organizations, and
* stimulating the interest of young people in a worthwhile activity, and encouraging the pursuit of a technological career to provide the next generation of industrial and research engineers.
Wishing to stimulate the growth of the Amateur Satellite Service in an orderly manner; and
strongly supporting the following goals:
* the encouragement of a wide dynamic range of activities stimulating training through increasing intellectual challenge,
* the stimulation of young people in schools and universities to develop an interest in amateur radio through participation in amateur satellite activities.
* where allowed, the provision of emergency services, especially to parts of the world that are less technologically developed, and
* the adoption of a 'code of practice' that ensures the use of amateur frequency allocations by satellites in accordance with the spirit and ethics of amateur radio.
Resolves 1. Member‑societies shall make Administrations more aware of the value and achievements of the Amateur Satellite Service.
2. Satellite operating within amateur frequency allocations shall carry payloads and experiments that are relevant to, of interest to, and freely available for participation by radio amateur worldwide.
3. Operational frequencies of amateur satellites shall be in accordance with all applicable IARU band plans.
4. The use of higher frequency bands by amateur satellites shall be encouraged.
RESOLUTION 90-2 (Revised 1992)
concerning the development of Amateur Radio
The IARU Administrative Council, Torremolinos, April 1990,
recognizing that one of the responsibilities of the IARU and the Administrative Council is the development and promotion of Amateur Radio
invites the regional organizations to submit to the Administrative Council, input for use in developing worldwide guidelines to be used for programs of the regional organizations for the development of Amateur Radio.
RESOLUTION 91-2 (Revised 1995)
concerning guidelines for “DIGIMODE"
The IARU Administrative Council, Bandung, October 1991,
considering the growing popularity of “DIGIMODE” for the relaying of messages between radio amateurs,
recognizing that a medium as effective as “DIGIMODE” can invite abuse through the introduction of traffic that is inappropriate to the Amateur Service internationally,
noting Resolution 87‑2 (Revised 1989) which urges adherence to the spirit and intentions of the ITU Radio Regulations in handling traffic, and calls attention to the undesirable aspects of the uncontrolled proliferation of unattended store‑and‑forward "mailbox" stations,
resolves that the attached "Guidelines for ‘DIGIMODE’ Operators" and "Guidelines for ‘DIGIMODE’ Bulletin Board Operators" first adopted at the IARU Region 3 Conference, Bandung, 1991, and later revised, shall be distributed to IARU member‑societies worldwide with the request that they be shared with the amateurs of each country; and
further resolves that future IARU regional conferences are invited to suggest improvements to these guidelines so they will continue to be representative of good Amateur Radio operating practices as these practices evolve over time.
Guidelines for “DIGIMODE” Operators
1. Amateur Radio takes pride in being self‑regulated. “DIGIMODE” Operators should continue this tradition.
2. “DIGIMODE” Operators, like all Amateur Radio Operators, should observe published Band Plans.
3. A “DIGIMODE” Operator should not send the following traffic either direct or via mail boxes:
a. All advertising for selling, buying or trading goods, including amateur equipment (except if permitted by local regulations);
b. All statements or propaganda on political or religious subjects;
c. All inappropriate language, as, for instance, the use of swear words, obscenities, defamatory or libelous language, etc.;
d. All material which may infringe Copyright;
e. All material which infringes privacy, whether personal or corporate.
4. A “DIGIMODE” Operator utilizing a BBS should avoid transmitting unnecessary or redundant messages and documents in order to enhance network efficiency.
5. A “DIGIMODE” Operator utilizing a BBS should ensure that the callsign of the originating station, including the name of the person responsible in the case of a club station, is clearly shown on every message so that the sender can be identified.
6. A “DIGIMODE” Operator should avoid messages that are too long for efficient relay though the network.
7. A “DIGIMODE” Operator utilizing a BBS should ensure that all messages transmitted are addressed to the appropriate group of recipients and not addressed to inappropriate areas in order to enhance network efficiency.
1. The Operator of a “DIGIMODE” Bulletin Board is obliged to provide a reliable service, within a defined area for a defined purpose.
2. A “DIGIMODE” Bulletin Board Operator is morally responsible for all messages forwarded by his/her system. He/she should make his/her best efforts to insure that the traffic forwarded is appropriate to the Amateur Radio Service and in accordance with the Guidelines for “DIGIMODE” Operators.
3. HF Mailboxes should only be used where there is a genuine need that cannot be provided by VHF or other means.
4. A “DIGIMODE” Bulletin Board Operator may take action to exclude a User who persistently contravenes the Guidelines for “DIGIMODE” Operators. Excluding a User should only be done as a last resort after the User has been warned and where exclusion does not contravene local regulations.
5. “DIGIMODE” Bulletin Board Operators should be aware of their responsibilities for the content of messages and are encouraged to use authentication mechanisms.
RESOLUTION 91-3
concerning the sharing of certain IARU expenses by the regional organizations
The IARU Administrative Council, Bandung, October 1991.
recognizing the increasing cost of the activities necessary to advance the objects of the IARU undertaken as a result of the decisions of the Administrative Council,
acknowledging the unstinting contribution of the International Secretariat to such activities beyond its strict constitutional responsibility,
recognizing the existing arrangements between the International Secretariat and the Regions in respect of particular activities and particularly the contribution of Region 1,
recognizing the evolutionary nature of the development of the IARU,
recognizing the desirability of adopting principles to advance this evolutionary development, and
acknowledging the commitment of the International Secretariat and the Regions not to treat the commitments adopted by this resolution as a limitation of their contributions for particular activities having regard to the needs of the IARU and their respective resources,
resolves that each of the Regions shall contribute a sum equivalent to 10% of their gross annual membership subscription income for such purposes, such contributions to be made in reimbursement of particular expenses or to the International Secretariat as may be agreed between the Administrative Council, the Regions and the International Secretariat from time to time.
RESOLUTION 92‑1
concerning possible effects of non‑ionizing emissions
IARU Administrative Council, Curacao, September 1992,
noting a concern as to the possible effects of radio‑frequency non‑ionizing radiation on humans,
supporting the continuing investigations into these matters by the scientific community, and
recognizing the importance of the Amateur Service remaining informed of developments in this area,
resolves 1. to urge member‑societies to recognize the importance of these scientific investigations;
2. to request member‑societies to forward published information on these investigations in their own country promptly to the International Secretariat; and
3. to make available copies of relevant scientific papers to any member‑society upon request.
RESOLUTION 93-1 (Revised 2001)
concerning international coordinators and other appointees
adopted in Brussels, September 1993
Whereas the IARU Administrative Council from time to time has, and in the future will, appoint co-ordinators, liaison officers, and others to assist it in various ways, and
whereas confusion may have arisen as to the terms of such positions, the duties to be undertaken in changing circumstances, and the length of time that such people are to hold such appointments, and for the avoidance of doubt, it is
resolved that the terms of all such positions shall be three years. At the meeting of the Administrative Council corresponding to the expiration of the term, the Council may or may not reconfirm the position, its terms of reference, and the appointment thereto.
RESOLUTION 93-2
concerning a commonly accepted amateur license
The IARU Administrative Council, Brussels, September 1993,
noting a) the desire of radio amateurs of one country to be able to operate in another country without the need for a permit issued by the Administration of the country visited,
b) the pioneering work of radio amateurs in Region 1 to achieve such a goal for amateurs of CEPT countries through acceptance of CEPT recommendations for automatic reciprocal operation,
c) the recent extension of the CEPT arrangement making possible the inclusion of non-CEPT countries, and
d) the initiatives of Region 2 countries aimed at creation of an International Amateur Radio Permit;
recognizing the importance of such arrangements for operation to the amateurs of the world; and
considering the key role which member Societies of IARU may play in bringing such a goal to fruition;
resolves a) to commend the regional organizations for their work in this important area of concern, and
b) to urge member Societies to support the efforts of the regional organizations in dealings with their national licensing authorities.
RESOLUTION 93-3
concerning effective representation of radio amateurs
The IARU Administrative Council, Brussels, September 1993,
noting 1. the constitutional obligation of all member Societies to represent adequately the interests of radio amateurs throughout their country or separate territory,
2. that in some countries there are radio amateurs who are members of other groups,
3. that to promote and defend the interests of radio amateurs throughout the world at international telecommunications conferences it is necessary for the IARU to speak on behalf of all radio amateurs, and
4. that it is desirable to have a common voice speak on behalf of radio amateurs to each administration,
resolves 1. to draw the attention of the regional organizations to the fact that for member Societies to meet their constitutional obligations, they should pass to such other groups adequate information as to the actions of the IARU and encourage such groups to respond to them in respect of IARU matters, and
2. to invite the regional organizations to take such action in respect thereof as is appropriate.
RESOLUTION 93-4
concerning "type approval" of radio equipment
The IARU Administrative Council, Brussels, September 1993,
noting the world-wide practice for radio equipment for use in other radio services to require "type approval" by the licensing administration and
further noting that by definition, the Amateur Service and the Amateur-Satellite Service are reliant on self-training and technical investigations;
recognizing that radio amateurs are qualified in radio technique by education and examination and
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